The Problems of Urbanization free essay sample

PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION Urbanization, or urban drift is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of global change. Urbanization is also defined by the United Nations as movement of people from rural to urban areas with population growth equating to urban migration. The United Nations projected that half of the worlds population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008 Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i. e. he proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time. So the term urbanization can represent the level of urban relative to overall population, or it can represent the rate at which the urban proportion is increasing. urban heat island has become a growing concern and is increasing over the years. The urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas are developed and heat becomes more abundant. In rural areas, a large part of the incoming solar energy is used to evaporate water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where less vegetation and exposed soil exists, the majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by urban structures and asphalt. Hence, during warm daylight hours, less evaporative cooling in cities allows surface temperatures to rise higher than in rural areas. Additional city heat is given off by vehicles and factories, as well as by industrial and domestic heating and cooling units. This effect causes the city to become 2 to 10o F (1 to 6o C) warmer than surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and intensification of carbon dioxide emissions. Urban poverty: Sprawling slums are now so commonly associated with cities like Nairobi that they have become unremarkable. Similarly, footage on television of children playing in open sewers, or of women picking their way through huge rubbish dumps is no longer shocking. Instead these images signify a phenomenon that is rapidly becoming one of developing countries’ most complex challenges – Urban Poverty. World population is increasing rapidly with three-quarters of the increase occurring in developing countries. Population growth within cities, and families moving from rural homes in search of a life offering opportunity and hope, means cities in the developing world grew by 2. 67% per year in 2000-2005, compared to 1. 21% for the world as a whole. Unfortunately, infrastructure and basic service development have not increased at the same rate and in countries where sanitation, roads, water, and other services were already under-developed, towns and cities are struggling to accommodate the unprecedented upsurge in urban populations. The result is hundreds of millions of people living in overcrowded, neglected urban slums that pose serious risks to their lives. Cause and effect Slums symbolise urban poverty. For the families living in them, they create hazardous and unsafe conditions that compound the poverty which forced them to set up home there in the first place. * With lack of freely available safe clean water in the cities, families living in slums have often no choice but to buy it at high cost from vendors. With inadequate sanitation, waste disposal or drainage facilities, open sewers are created by rubbish and human defecation * alongside walkways between the densely packed shelters – disease thrives and people, especially children become ill. * In these conditions simply being ill can have severe implications. It can mean loss of livelihood, leaving families struggling to buy food or water let alone medicines. * With weak ownership rights to the land, residents are vulnerable and cannot build saf e, sturdy homes, so they become easy victims of weather conditions fire and crime. With no voice to change policy decisions or demand essential services, slum dwellers face an enormous challenge in such uncertain and unfair circumstances. * In this environment, with no land, traditional coping mechanisms like relying on extended family or small-holder farming falter. The result is that people’s homes and neighbourhoods become both a cause and an effect of poverty and something that can be extremely difficult to break out of. Recognition of this growing problem culminated in 2000 when the world’s richest governments pledged through the Millennium Development Goals to improve the lives of 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. Urban poverty facts * Cities in the developing world will absorb 95% of the worlds expected population growth between 2000 and 2030. * According to recent estimates there are now over 900 million who people can be classified as slum dwellers. * Based on 2001 estimates, 43% of the urban population in the developing world lives in slums. In the least developed countries, this percentage rises to more than 78%. * If present trends continue, 1. 5 billion people out of 3. 3 billion urban residents will live in sums by the year 2020. Unemployment The rate of unemployment in some urban areas is 17. 5%. The Government does devote a considerable part of its budget to education, and the literacy rate above the age of 15 is 85%, however, there is little foreign investment into the economy due to high crime rates, congested road system, and the shortage of a skilled labor. Within the labor force, where the total is 1,062,100, 41% is involved in services, 22. 5% is involved in agriculture and 19% is involved in industry. Most of the unemployed population within Country can be found in the squatter settlements and ghettos of the inner city. Within these communities, organizations such as Non Governmental organization, are involved in empowerment projects, which have goals of community upliftment. An individual may be classified as living in poverty if he or she earns less than J$38,409. 15 per year. Of the total percentage of people living in poverty, 50. 7% are male and 49. 3% are females. This almost fifty-fifty cut has been the result of women at larger number completing higher levels of education whereas in most counties the females are more disadvantaged than the males. Only 47% of the total percentage of people living below the poverty line is a part of the labor force (ages 15 – 64). There is a high level of inequality in where the wealthiest 20% of the population controls 46% of the national consumption, while the poorest 20% controlled only 5. 3% of the national consumption. Thus the wealthiest 10% consumed more that 12. 5 times of the poorest 10%. Criminal activity With inequalities such as this, it is not too hard to believe that Kingston’s reputation as a place of violence ranks third in the world. Gang violence and shootings occur regularly in inner-city areas of Kingston. Some inner-city neighborhoods are occasionally subject to curfews and police searches. Impromptu street protests sometimes occur, during which demonstrators often construct roadblocks or otherwise block the streets. The Honorable Percival Patterson Prime minist of Jamaica 1992-PresentThe Prime Minister of the Island, The Honorable Percival Patterson, aimed to curb violence with several crime fighting plans. One of these plans includes a â€Å"Crime Stop† operation where the communication with the public and the police is increased. This program rewards persons who inform the police on criminal activity that leads to an arrest. The need to decrease the number of guns smuggled and circulated into the country is also another angle that the authorities seek to deal with the issues of criminal activity in Jamaica. The heightened security with smuggling of weapons from the USA is one way that the Government of Jamaica seeks to curb the influx of weapons, in return for increased efforts to help with drug trafficking in the states. These are a few of the ways that the Ministry of security seeks to end the violence in the countries capital. Congestion Overcrowding is one of the other problems that the urban center faces. With the importation of a high level of Japanese used cars (deportees) that are sold for relatively cheap, the number of cars on the roads greatly contribute to the damage of roadways, and the congestion within the city. The improvement of public transportation is one means of decreasing the high volumes of traffic on the roads. Since a major natural disaster by means of hurricane Gilbert in 1988, Kingston has had its share of flooding and such, but nothing related to the massive earthquakes of the early 1900s. The Urban Poor and Mobility Stress in Nigerian Cities indication of the extent of urban mobility problems in. Nigerian cities can be gleaned from the level or state of transport infrastructure, the deplorable AN ANALYSIS OF FOOD SECURITY SITUATION AMONG NIGERIAN URBAN Key words: Food security, urban households, and Lagos state, Nigeria. ontributing to food problems in Nigeria varies from URBAN POVERTY IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF AGEGE AREA OF LAGOS in an urban area (Ibadan) of Nigeria and to present concrete solution to food and poverty problems in large urban areas. The survey covered three areas, Urban housing affordability and housing policy dilemmas in Nigeria housing affordability problems in Nigeria with about 3 out of every 5 urban households experiencing such difficulties. There are also significant housing IMROVING URBAN LAND USE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: THE Despite the existence of these laws and policies, urban land use management problems still persist in Nigeria. Consequently, there is need for a better Intra-urban travel stress in a developing country – Nigeria have examined various aspects of the urban transport problems, hitherto there is no study in the developing country and in Nigeria in particular that WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT, PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF IMPLEMENTATIONS Water supply in Nigeria is facing serious challenges driven by rapid population growth, rbanization, budgetary constraints, corruption, and imperatives of Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management globalization and situating Africa in the global scene, the urbanization process is Solid Waste Management in Nigeria: Problems and Issues. The arguments against very large cities in Nigeria: A non-western Sada, P. O. : Urbanization Trends an d Problems of Urbanization. Planning for Rural Development in Nigeria: A spatial approach Nigerias Major Urban Centres, Paper Presented for Conference of to tackle the complex nature of rural development problems in Nigeria in an inte- Water Supply Sanitation in Nigeria A. Urban Water Supply Sanitation. †¢. The Large Urban Utility Problem sewerage in urban Nigeria. Regarding solid waste, while there is some level of Thematic Committee 6 8 June 2001 12. Sustainable Urban governance of these complex systems of urbanization that Nigeria has perhaps made problems of poverty and overwhelming demand on urban services. ISSUES IN AND FUTURE OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC M ANAGEM Contemporary issues in Nigerias Urban Transportation. 3. The demand for and management of urban-transport. 4. Issues and Problems SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA – THE FINANCIAL AND One major serious aspect of urban problem with respect to housing is the poor state Table 1: Distribution of Households by Water Supply in Nigeria Urban Lesson One—Urbanization Lagos, Nigeria. 8. 7. 23. Istanbul, Turkey. 9. 4. 24. Moscow, Russian. Federation Review urban problems solutions from the previous lesson. Activities:

Sandra Wallace Essays - Medicine, Medical Equipment,

Sandra Wallace Description of a standard stethoscope "A stethoscope is an acoustic medical device used for listening to the internal sounds of the human or animal body. It typically has a small disc-shaped resonator that is placed against the chest and two tubes hooked to earpieces. Although this devise is most commonly used to listen to the heart and lungs, it can also be used to listen to the bl ood flow in arteries and veins." (Anatomy of a Stethoscope) This device has come a long way since the original wooden, funnel shaped instrument that was invented by French physician Rene Laennec in 1819. Because he felt uncomfortable putting his ear up to the chest of women, he felt this instrument was necessary. Stethoscopes are roughly 24 inches long and weigh about 5 ounces. When pressed against the body this instrument is made up of metal an d rubber to amplify the body's i nternal sounds. The stethoscope is made up of five important pieces. 1. The tunable diaphragm (chest piece) 2. Stem 3. Tubing 4. Ear tube 5. Ear tip (Headset). 1240971269966 According to "mystethoscope.com", the leading retailer of stethoscopes, these are how the 5 pieces of the stethoscope are used: The tunable diaphragm : " A double-sided chestpiece rotates to alternate between the two sides. The flatter, diaphragm side is used for listening to high frequency sounds. The cup-shaped, bell side is used for hearing low pitched sounds. " Stem : "The stem connects the stethoscope tubing to the chestpiece " Tubing : "The tubing transmits sound from the chestpiece to the earpieces. Tubing can be made from neoprene, PVC, or other materials." Ear tube : " Metal portion of the stethoscope onto which the tubing and ear tips are fitted. Some binaural s rotate to help the user achieve a more comfortable fit. " Ear tip : " Allows sound to be heard by the user. When placing the ear tips in the ear canal they should be facing in a forward position " Work Cited Anatomy of a Stethoscope." Anatomy of a Stethoscope, http://www.littmann.com/3m/en_us/littmann-stethoscopes/education-center/how-to-choose/anatomy/ . "Stethoscope FAQ." Stethoscope Help, www.mystethoscope.com/stethoscope-faq.html .

Alligator Snapping Turtle Facts

Alligator Snapping Turtle Facts The alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii) is a large freshwater turtle native to the United States. The species is named in honor of Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck. The turtle gets its common name from the ridges on its shell that resemble the rough skin of an alligator. Fast Facts: Alligator Snapping Turtle Scientific Name: Macrochelys temminckiiDistinguishing Features: Large turtle with strong jaws and a ridged shell resembling alligator skinAverage Size: 8.4 to 80 kg (19 to 176 lb); males larger than femalesDiet: Primarily carnivorousAverage Life Span: 20 to 70 yearsHabitat: Midwest to Southeast United StatesConservation Status: VulnerableKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: ReptiliaOrder: TestudinesFamily: ChelydridaeFun Fact: Although not aggressive, the turtle can deliver a bite powerful enough to amputate fingers. Description The alligator snapping turtle has a large head and thick shell with three ridges that feature large, spiked scales. In contrast, the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) has a smoother shell. Snapping turtle have strong, stout heads, powerful jaws, and sharp claws. Although alligator snapping turtles may be black, brown, or olive green, most turtles appear greenish from algae growing on the carapace. The turtle has golden eyes with a radiating pattern that aids camouflage. On average, adult alligator snapping turtles range from 35 to 81 cm (13.8 to 31.8 in) carapace length and weigh between 8.4 to 80 kg (19 to 176 lb). Females tend to be smaller than males. Male alligator snapping turtles can be very large, potentially reaching 183 kg (403 lb). Of the freshwater turtles, only a few Asian softshell species reach a comparable size. Distribution The alligator snapping turtles makes its home in the rivers, lakes, and canals of the midwestern to southeastern United States. It lives in watersheds that ultimately drain into the Gulf of Mexico. The turtle is found as far north as South Dakota, as far west as Texas, and east to Florida and Georgia. Alligator snapping turtles live almost exclusively in the water. Females venture onto land to lay eggs. Diet and Predators Technically, turtles are omnivorous. But, for the most part, alligator snapping turtles are opportunistic predators. Their usual diet includes fish, carcasses, mollusks, amphibians, worms, snakes, water birds, crayfish, aquatic mammals, and other turtles. They will also eat aquatic plants. Large alligator snapping turtles have been known to kill and eat American alligators. Like other reptiles, they refuse to eat when the temperature is extremely cold or hot because they cannot digest their meal. The turtles tongue resembles a worm. reptiles4all, Getty Images Although the turtles tend to hunt at night, they can lure small prey during the daytime using their unusual tongues. The tongue of the turtle resembles a pink wriggling worm. A variety of predators may eat turtle eggs and hatchlings, including snakes, raccoons, skunks, herons, and crows. Humans are the only significant predator of the adults. Reproduction and Life Cycle Alligator snapping turtles become sexually mature around 12 years of age. They mate in the spring. About two months later, the female leaves the water to build a nest and deposit between 10 and 50 eggs. She selects a nest site near the water, but high enough or far enough to protect the eggs from flooding. Hatchlings emerge after 100 to 140 days, in early autumn. Their sex is determined by incubation temperature. In captivity, most turtles live between 20 and 70 years. However, they can potentially live as long as 200 years. Conservation Status The IUCN Red List classifies the alligator snapping turtle as a vulnerable species. The turtle is listed on CITES Appendix III (United States), with restrictions on its capture in several states within its range and on exportation. Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri are among states in which the turtle is considered endangered. Threats include collection for the pet trade, habitat destruction, pollution, pesticide accumulation, and trapping for its meat. Although threatened in the wild, the turtle is also kept in captivity. Conservationists are concerned release of captive turtles outside the species natural range may cause it to become invasive. In 2013, an alligator snapping turtle was captured and euthanized in Oregon. Some states prohibit keeping alligator snapping turtles as pets. Sources Elsey, R. M. (2006). Food Habits of Macrochelys temminckii (Alligator Snapping Turtle) from Arkansas and Louisiana. Southeastern Naturalist. 5 (3): 443–452. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2006)5[443:FHOMTA]2.0.CO;2Ernst, C., R. Barbour, J. Lovich. (1994). Turtles of the United States and Canada. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1560988231.Gibbons, J. Whitfield (1987). Why Do Turtles Live So Long?. BioScience. 37 (4): 262–269. doi:10.2307/1310589Thomas, Travis M.; Granatosky, Michael C.; Bourque, Jason R.; Krysko, Kenneth L.; Moler, Paul E.; Gamble, Tony; Suarez, Eric; Leone, Erin; Roman, Joe (2014). Taxonomic assessment of Alligator Snapping Turtles (Chelydridae: Macrochelys), with the description of two new species from the southeastern United States. Zootaxa. 3786 (2): 141–165. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3786.2.4Tortoise Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996. Macrochelys temminckii (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Spe cies 1996: e.T12589A97272309. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T12589A3362355.en

Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology

Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology Introduction Psychology evolved from ancient civilization of Greeks, Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, and Arabs among other ancient great thinkers who made significant contribution to the development of psychology over the centuries. Psychology developed from various fields of knowledge such as philosophy, sociology, biology, physiology, anthropology, and other related disciplines because it interfaces widely with diverse disciplines.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Until 1879, psychology was a dependent discipline, which formed part of ancient philosophy and it evolved to due to emergence of empirical scientific skills that enhanced research and validation of psychological theories. Since psychology is the study of mental processes and human behaviors, it was very difficult and complex for the ancient psychol ogists to design experiments that would empirically demonstrate psychology of human beings. Hunt admits that, â€Å"studying the behaviors of humans is more complicated because of the influence of extraneous variables that are difficult to control. Oftentimes it requires researchers to make inferences or interpretation because the data is comparatively less clear-cut† (2006, p.12). The emergence of scientific skills and their application in various fields of knowledge led to the development of psychology as an independent field from philosophy. To explore history of psychology, this essay examines personalistic and naturalistic contributions of different theorists who represent various phases of psychological history such as philosophical antecedent, early physiological experiment, applied behaviorism, psychoanalytic movement, and contemporary movement, and ultimately evaluate personalistic and naturalistic views of psychological history. Philosophical Antecedents to Psycholo gy Before the development of empirical scientific skills in the late 19th century, psychology was an integral part of philosophy since great philosophers used rational introspective of human behaviors to understand the nature of human beings. Since philosophical ideologies questioned human mind and behavior, it provided a basis for the psychologists and physiologists to elucidate human mind and behavior according to their respective perceptions. Ancient great thinkers employed philosophy and physiology in the study of human mind and behaviors.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Griffiths, philosophy entails introspection of mental processes because â€Å"through a process of self-questioning and asking others questions, philosophers have attempted to unravel how we think, how we learn, how we gain knowledge and how we use our experiences† (2007, p.5). On th e other hand, physiology involved the study of human body to unravel complex processes of the body relative to health. Then, the relationship between the mind and the body perplexed ancient philosophers and this led to the development of psychology as an independent field of knowledge that considers both philosophy of the mind and physiology of the body. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C), an ancient philosopher, examined human life and argued that the mind and the body have intricate connection because the mind has the ability to control the body. Plato (427-347B.C.) argued that the mind and the body are two distinct components of a person that interact effectively in bringing about human behavior. Plato believed that human beings gain knowledge through introspection rather than through observation; hence, he formed the foundation for rationalism. Aristotle (348-322 B.C.), a student of Plato contested that the mind and the body are not different entities of a human being, as he believed tha t physiological study of the body through observation is critical in understanding how the mind functions, thus his argument formed foundation for empiricism. Based on philosophical work of Plato and Aristotle, rationalism and empiricism are respective two approaches of psychology that emerged. Nadel (2008) argues that, â€Å"a rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through logical analysis while an empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence, that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation† (p.54). Thus, rationalism and empiricism are major approaches of modern psychology that originated from philosophical ideologies of human nature.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During 16th and 17th, rationalism and empiricism became prominent when more philo sophers formulated psychological theories that explain human mind and behavior. Rene Descartes (1596-1550), a great thinker of this period supported rationalism arguing that the mind and the body are distinct components of a human being that mutually interact and determine the behavior of a person. He believed that human beings have cognitive abilities that differentiate them from animals. On the other hand, John Locke believed that the mind and the body are one and that they interact equally. He perceived that mutual coexistence of the body and mind is imperative for the development of human behavior because the body can sense various stimuli from the environment and the mind too process sensed information for the body to respond appropriately to diverse environmental conditions. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), agreed with both rationalism and empiricism views arguing that they are essential in psychological study of mind and human behaviors. The philosophical issue of the mind and the body complicated philosophical studies of the nature of human beings that resulted in formulation of diverse theories. Hunt argues that, â€Å"the issues confronted by philosophers, physicians, and psychologists are so intertwined that when psychology was starting out as a field of study in the late 1800s it was viewed by some as a branch of philosophy† (2006, p.18). Ultimately, psychology emerged and became independent from philosophy as the science of mind and human behavior. During the earliest period of psychological evolution, philosophers differed in defining the relationship between the mind and the body. Rationalists believed that the mind and the body are separate and distinct components of a human being and thus psychological study should have its basis through introspection of the mind by rational analysis. However, Rene Desecrates resolved the philosophical problem of the mind and body by arguing that they are distinct components of a person, hence rationalism for med the basis of ancient psychology and is equally central to modern psychology (Watson, 2008, p.9).Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Descartes’ beliefs did set the stage for the development of empirical psychology. Since the problem of mind and body dominated the minds of many great philosophers, naturalistic approach best explains contribution of Rene Desecrates in the ancient period. Philosophers like Hippocrates, Aristotle, Plato, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant contributed to the emergence and evolution of psychology during the ancient times. The philosophers discovered that the mind and the body are entities that interact in the body, which resulted into rationalism and empiricism study of psychology. Early Physiological and Experimental psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German philosopher and psychologist, came up with early physiological and experimental psychology that has become the basis of modern empirical study of psychology. He dedicated his studies to carrying out physiological experiments for he intended to unravel the mystery behind structure of the mind. Wundt believed in the structura l perception of human mind, hence his studies focused on structuralism theory in contrast with functionalism theory that elucidates human mind from functional point of view. According to Marr, â€Å"Structuralism seeks to understand the structure and configuration of elements of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components† (2008, p.56). Wundt assumed that physiological and psychological processes of a person interact in the body resulting into development of behavior. He became the father of experimental psychology since he established scientific laboratory where he conducted psychological experiments. He further designed various models of experiments so that he would detect how human senses coordinate with mental structures bringing out certain responses. Wilhelm Wundt revolutionized psychology because he was the first to apply empirical scientific skills in the study of psychology. Due to his experiments, psychology gained e nough footing and became independent field of knowledge with significant empirical evidences to support its theories that was earlier incredible. Wilhelm Wundt believed that behavior of a person depends on the interaction of physiological and psychological elements. â€Å"Physiological psychology was concerned with the process of excitations from stimulation of the sense organs, through sensory neurons to the lower and higher brain centers, and from these centers to the muscles† (Nadel, 2008, p.58). The physiological psychology provided an empirical perspective of studying psychology since earlier studies viewed psychology from philosophical point of view and applied philosophical ideologies and theories in the understanding of human mind and behaviors. According to the physiological and experimental psychology, Wilhelm Wundt assumed that physiological processes of senses could give significant information concerning the functioning of the brain. He designed novel experiments in the laboratory, which focused in establishing the relationship between the mind and the body through physiological actions of nerves. The experiment gave robust findings that led to the development of structural theory of psychology that posits that mental and physiological structures interact effectively in the body and are responsible for the development of human behavior. Wilhelm Wundt employed introspection as one of the method of analyzing the relationship between the mind and the body through physiological mechanism of the body. â€Å"Although Wundts method of introspection did not remain a fundamental tool of psychological experimentation past the early 1920s, his greatest contribution was to show that psychology could be a valid experimental science,† (Wilson Keil, 2007, p.60). Thus, Wilhelm Wundt did not only prove that psychology is an experimental science, but also did contribute to the independence of psychology in the 20th century. Based on the empirical ide ology of philosophy, Wilhelm Wundt formulated the first scientific experiment in a laboratory for he assumed that the relationship between the mind and the body lies in their interaction through physiological mechanism. He conducted experiments where he determined effects of varied stimuli on the mind and responses (Marr, 2008, p.72). His work led to the independence of psychology as science of the mind and behavior for empirical studies enhanced validation of many psychological theories that relied on philosophical ideologies. Personalistic approach concerning the history of psychology best accounts for his contribution to the evolution of psychology. He was the first psychologist to conduct laboratory experiment to test the relationship between the body and the mind by using varied environmental stimuli. His experimental efforts and findings revolutionized the study of psychology from rational perspective to empirical perspective. Physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhe lm Wundt did prove that psychology is an experiential science that needs scientific skills to validate its theories. Due to great work of Wilhelm Wundt, psychology has become the science of mind and behavior in the modern society. Applied psychology and Behaviorism John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was a great proponent of behavioral theory of psychology that explains human mind and behavior. Watson did study physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and found that physiology alone could not explain the nature of human mind. He extended experimental physiology to include animal models in his experiments because he could easily manipulate their behavior as compared to human beings. Watson assumed that behavior of a person reflects psychological status in that, studying human behaviors could tell a lot about their minds. Behavioral theory assumes that human behaviors are a reflection of the mental conditions and thus should form central basis of studying psychology. In his experiments, Watson used animal models because he assumed that he could effectively extrapolate the results and apply them to human behaviors. â€Å"Using the conclusions drawn from animal research, Watson did much to enlighten educators about the complexities of learning, motivation, response generation, and problem solving,† (Hart Kritsonis, 2006, p.8). Although his view of psychology differed with the introspection ideology of Wilhelm Wundt, he employed physiological experiment in determining stimuli-based behaviors of animals. The behavioral theory of psychology made significant contribution to the empirical study of psychology and led to the evolution of other fields of psychology such as behavioral psychology and social psychology, which are important in explaining human behavior in the society. Watson disputed psychological views of structuralism and functionalism for he perceived that they lacked sufficient empirical applications and extrapolation to diverse huma n behaviors in the society. Many psychologists â€Å"credits Watson for having brought credence to some of the psychoanalytic concepts such as the role of early childhood experiences, trauma and relationships with significant social agents, primarily maternal figures, in the formation a child’s personality, capabilities and propensities† (Hart Kritsonis, 2006, p.9). Therefore, behaviorism has become an important aspect of modern psychology for it has expanded empirical application and study of human mind and behaviors. After analyzing the work of physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt, John Watson formulated behavioral theory of psychology. He assumed that there is correlation between the mind and behaviors of individuals and thus, studying human behaviors could unravel the mystery behind the functioning of the mind. Since John Watson based his behavioral studies on earlier work of experimental psychology, naturalistic approach appropriately accoun ts for his contribution to the history of psychology. Behavioral theory has become very important in modern psychology, as it is applicable in the diagnosis of varied mental disorders. Psychoanalytic Movement Sigmund Freud was a great psychologist of the 20th century who came up with psychoanalytic theory to elucidate how human mind functions and how it influences human behavior. He was a neurologist and thus his knowledge concerning the functioning of the brain inspired him to formulate psychoanalytic theory. Examining mental disorders of the children, Sigmund Freud discovered that some disorders such as necrosis and hysteria affect mental functions while organic matter in the mind remains intact. Through neurological examination, he singled the cause of hysterical disorders as repressed memories of traumatic experiences since organic matter remained intact. Sigmund Freud formulated psychotherapy procedure that helped the patients to recall traumatic experiences so that he could gu ide them in resolving psychological crises arising from repressed memories. Sigmund Freud explains that, â€Å"we guided the patient’s attention directly to the traumatic scene during which the symptom had arisen, tried to find therein the psychic conflict and to free the repressed affect †¦ discovered the procedure characteristic of the psychic processes of the neuroses† (Strachey, 2007, p.7). From the experience as a neurologist, Sigmund Freud discovered that mental disorders do not require physiotherapy but psychotherapy and thus he applied regression analysis of life experiences to awaken and resolve repressed memories of patients. Realizing that necroses relate with the sexual drives of children, Sigmund Freud formulated psychosexual theory after exploring sexual development from a psychological point of view. He argued that sexual development intricately links with the mind and determines the behaviour of an individual. Freud changed the perception of sex wh en he proposed that sexuality forms an integral part of childhood development because sexual drives mediates between the body and the mind. He noted that sexual instincts are major driving forces in personality development. Sigmund Freud redefined the ordinary physical perspective of sexual development by incorporating the psychological aspects of psyche. In his psychoanalysis theory, Freud proposed that the psyche has three components, namely, the ego, the super-ego, and the ID (Strachey, 2007, p.84). Super-ego is the conscious component of the psyche that imposes and regulates cultural sexual constraints while the ID is the unconscious component that determines the sexual instincts of pleasure and is important in socialization. The ego is the component of the psyche that interfaces and coordinates the super-ego and the ID in the harmonization of the conflicting sexual instincts and cultural sexual constraints in the process of psychosexual development. Thus, Sigmund Freud modeled psychosexual development into five stages: â€Å"oral phase, anal phase, phallic phase, latency phase and genital phase† (Strachey, 2007, p.83) depending on the source of the sexual instinct. Contrary to the behavioral theory, Sigmund Freud came up with psychoanalytic theory, which postulates that mental disorders such as necroses and hysteria are due repressed memories of past traumatic experiences. In addition, he formulated psychosexual theory where he explained how the three elements of psyche viz. super ego, ego, and ID interact effectively in resolution of psychosexual crises (Wilson Keil, 2007, p.44). Since Sigmund Freud came up with the psychoanalytic theory together with his friends, personalistic and naturalistic approaches best account for his contribution to the history of psychology His psychoanalytic principles are central to modern psychotherapy Contemporary Movement Social constructivism is a contemporary school of thought in psychology whose proponents argue that scientific and psychological ideologies are all constructs of humanity and that they did not exist in their own. The social construction theory shifted from self-psychology and incorporated the influence of social environment to the mind and subsequent development of behaviors. Kenneth Gergen is a modern proponent of construction theory who argues that science and philosophy are human constructs that cannot fully explain psychological and behavioral development in the society with many social factors that confounds inquiry in psychology. â€Å"What we take to be experience of the world does not in itself dictate the terms by which the world is understood. What we take to be knowledge of the world is not a product of induction, or of the building and testing of general hypotheses† (Gergen, 2009, p.266). He criticizes empiricists for over reliance on observation as basis of scientific knowledge for he holds that observers have bias when making their empirical observations . Since some aspects of psychology such as emotions are very abstract for empirical analyses, empirical studies of human thoughts and behavioral are not sufficient in validation and elucidation of psychological theories. According to the social construction theory, interaction of human beings in the universe has played significant role in shaping their thoughts and behaviors. Human beings have made diverse social constructs in the society that have shaped human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Constructionists believe that understanding of the world, human behavior and thoughts lies in mutual interaction of people, and their systems in the society. Boghossian argues that the study of culture, personality, emotions and memories â€Å"direct our attention to the social, moral, political and economic institutions that sustain and are supported by current assumptions about human activity† (2010, p.32). In modern society, social psychology is applicable in political spheres, in management levels, and in various interactions of people where mobilization is necessary. Kenneth Gergen is a contemporary proponent of social construction theory that critics empirical psychology as insufficient in elucidating human behavior and mental functions. He added social aspect as a determinant of human behavior and mental functions for he believed that social forces are integral part of the psychology because they influence interaction of human beings in the society. Given that many of his contemporaries contributed to the formulation of the social construction theory, naturalistic approach appropriately explains his contribution to the history of psychology Summary Naturalistic and personalistic perspectives are two approaches that help in understanding the history and evolution of psychology. While naturalistic perspective of psychological history emphasizes collective intellectual contribution by the great thinkers, personalistic perspective of psychological history emp hasizes on individual contribution to the growth and evolution of psychology. According to naturalistic perception, history of psychology is collection of great ideologies from many thinkers who contributed to the development and evolution of psychology during various intellectual and historical periods into the modern psychology. Personalistic approach to the study of psychological history emphasizes individual contributions and regards them as heroic intellectuals. Watson argues that, â€Å"the history of what man has accomplished in this world is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked here† (2009, p.12). Personalistic theory assumes that the history of psychology is just but a history of great persons who made significant contributions, which changed the course of psychology throughout the history. Conclusion Ancient great thinkers made significant contribution to the growth and development of psychology. During the ancient times, psychology was part of phi losophy because it lacked empirical validation of its theories. Psychology was dependent on philosophical ideologies of rationalism in the study of human thoughts and behaviors. In the late 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt came up with empirical view of psychology for he conducted first laboratory experiment to find out the relationship between the mind and the body via physiological actions of nerves. His experiments revolutionized psychology to become an independent field of knowledge, which could validate its theories using scientific principles of research. Thus, empirical psychology formed the foundation for the emergence of behavioral theory, psychoanalytic theory and contemporary social construction theory, which are integral part of modern psychology. References Boghossian, P. (2010). Contemporary Construction Theory. The Institute of  Psychological studies, 1-45. Gergen, K. (2009). The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology.  American Psychologist, 40(3), 266-2 81. Griffiths, P. (2007). Evolutionary Psychology: History, and Current Status.  The Philosophy of Science, 1-14. Hart, K., Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Critical Analysis of John B. Watson’s Original Writing: Behaviorisms as a Behaviorist Views It. National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3), 1-21. Hunt, M. (2006). The History of Psychology. London: Prentice Hall. Marr, D. (2008). Origin and History of Psychology. New York: Cambridge Press. Nadel, L. (2008). Introduction to Cognitive Psychology. London: Nature Publishing Group. Strachey, J. (2007). The History of Psychoanalytic Movement: Sigmund Freud.  Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24(7), 1-134. Watson, R. (2008). Introduction to Psychology’s History. The American Psychological  Association, 1-44. Wilson, R., Keil, F. (2007). Evolution of Psychology: Ancient and Modern Perception.  The Journal of Psychology, 45(9), 23-67.

Accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Accounting - Assignment Example According to data revealed from the New York Stock Exchange, the company is traded under the ticker symbol of WMT. Currently it yields a price earnings ratio of 15.48 with a beta coefficient of 0.24. With 3,810,170,000 of outstanding shares, the company has a market capitalization of USD 202.47 billion. The performance of Wal-Mart has improved steadily over the last three years. In the year 2007 the company reported an annual turnover of $344759 million which has risen to $401211 million in the year 2009. This marks an increase of nearly 16 percent. The operating cost of the company has remained stable at approximately 95 percent for the last three years. Wal-Mart has been successful in managing the operating costs of the company. There has been a rise in the interest cost on debt of the company that has moved up from $1549 million in 2007 to $1896 million in 2009 which is a rise of nearly 22 percent. This is due to the rise in the debt component of the company. The net income of the company has steadily moved up over the years. In 2007 the company reported a net income of $11284 million that increased to nearly $13400 million in 2009, an increase of nearly 18 percent. The cash position of the company has improved significantly over the previous year. Cash and cash equivalents of the company was $5569 million in 2007 and this increased to $7275 million at the end of the financial year 2009. The current ratio represents the ability of a company to meet its short term liabilities out of its current assets. Investors view current ratio as a measure of the liquidity condition of a company. As per the theories this ratio should be 2:1 which means the company retains current assets which are double the amount of current liabilities, but the bench mark varies from industry to industry. Wal-Mart’s current ratio has improved in 2009 as compared to 2008, hence the company has enhanced its liquidity position and the risk associated with short term solvency

Drug Court Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Drug Court Systems - Essay Example Drug practices require specialized treatment and focused undeterred attention; the traditional judicial systems only emphasized to the extent of guilt and determination of sanctions not the root cause of addiction and its ramifications, the judges needed specialized training to recognize special areas of supervision and monitoring of drug addicts. But most of all the traditional disposition process was unable to handle the caseload of the rapidly increasing drug cases and was getting more and more exhausted and overcrowded hence, unable to provide for permanent or long term solutions, in order to fill the gap for a strategic judicial system, purely dedicated to individual participants caught with charges for drug related felonies and misdemeanors, specialized drug courts came into being. The drug court’s main goal was not just punishment but to reform and rehabilitate drug offenders and, eventually make them drug-free. The Drug court is a problem-solving court or, a specialize d system-based approach to eradicate crimes related to drug and substance abuse. The drug court system represents the correlated, homogenized and organized efforts of judicial experts and treatment professionals to interpose and break the cycle of substance misuse and all sorts of crimes related to drug abuse and addiction. ... All this led to the urgent need and expansive growth of drug courts. Drug Court model in American judicial structure: Drug courts showed phenomenal growth, combining the hopes of re-habilitation and incentives coupled with the promise of punishment. The drug model requires individuals arrested on drug charges to attend training and regularly scheduled court hearings and undergo periodical drug tests. An expert system of graduated sanctions, rewards participants for compliance and punishes them for non-compliance. (Whiteacre, 2008) After completion the participants may have their charges reduced or dropped. Although models for various drug courts depend upon their target population, resources and evaluation techniques they involve a general criterion such as: Crime assessment and offender identification, judicial interaction and case management, monitoring procedures such as drug testing and supervision while on probation, courtroom procedures and eventually graduating sanctions, rewa rd incentives or vice versa, providing ancillary treatment and services such as, mental health improvement, Stress and trauma related family therapy and vocational training, improved skills and over all enhancement of the quality of life. In 1989, the first adult drug treatment court opened in Dade County, Miami (Florida), in America. More than 800 adults, juvenile and tribal courts have been operating across the United States of America since then and the popularity and numbers keeps growing. (Nolan, 2003) between 1991 and 1993, around 20 jurisdictions across America implemented drug courts. The drug court model received great public acclaim and support, and large scale positive media coverage on local and national levels.

Literature Search Public Speaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Literature Search Public Speaking - Essay Example ge Journal of Research & Practice that public speaking skills are necessary for success as a professional and he cites several studies and paper which show that people who are good at public speaking have an advantage in the business world as compared to people who are not good public speakers. The writer then goes on to suggest that elementary public speaking courses should be as broad based as possible since students might not be able to take more elective courses in communications. With a similar focus on the academic side, Hansot (2004) shows how mastery of public speaking used to be taught in American schools as traditional rhetorical practice in the 19th century before it fell out of fashion. Students were taught a variety skills including control of their voice and body movements for effective communications. This was considered necessary for professional advancement as well as a part of the duties one might be expected to perform with an active public office. In opposition to the writers mentioned above, Pugsley (2005) takes a more practical approach while discussing public speaking and outlines the important parts of an effective presentation. The writer suggests that planning is the thing which makes a speech effective and successful while an ill planned speech would be incoherent despite scoring highly in other areas. A mastery of the topic under discussion as well as an enthusiastic approach is also a requirement for good speeches. As opposed to the writers mentioned above, the websites found under the topic of public speaking move directly to the heart of the matter and focus on practical advice rather than academic information. For example, Allyn & Bacon (2006) point out how nervousness is to be expected and it should not deter a person from having their say. McKinney (2005) gives very good advice on how a call to action as well as a humorous comment can leave the crowd happy and appreciative of a speech. Finally, the Toastmasters (2005) gives ten